Table 3 Potential microplastics solutions across the plastic life cycle

Design and production

(1) Different construction of synthetic materials for clothing (e.g. yarn type, textile construction) to reduce shedding of fibres

(2) Simplified design of products, e.g., avoidance of films and mixtures of different plastic types to facilitate recycling

(3) Increased use of biodegradable plastics

Packaging and distribution

(4) Reduction of single-use plastic packaging

(5) Bans of plastic items such as straws, disposables etc

(6) Better labelling of cosmetic and cleaning products that contain microbeads (where these still exist) to allow consumer choice

Use and maintenance

(7) Introduce widespread schemes for more reuse of plastic items by consumers, e.g. bring your own coffee cups, bring your own shopping containers

(8) Increased reparability / longevity of products, e.g. electronics

Disposal

(9) Financial incentives for recycling of plastic items by consumers

(10) Introduction of harmonised recycling systems nationally and internationally

(11) Deposit return schemes for plastic items such as bottles

Recovery / Clean-up

(12) Advanced tertiary technologies: including clariflocculation (phosphorous removal), membrane processes (membrane bioreactor, ultra- and nanofiltration), and activated carbon processes

(13) Electrostatic separation process in industrial wastewater

(14) Washing machine filters

(15) Tyre wear particle collector on the car

(16) Capture of microplastics from sports fields and playgrounds

Systems-based approaches

(17) Extended Producer Responsibility (need for the producer to take used product back for reusing or recycling and with it “forcing” producer to take product life cycle into account) and fines for spillages

(18) Circular economy approaches from design to end-of-life

(19) Financial burdens such as a “plastic tax” or charges to make any plastic product more expensive and thereby reduce the use

(20) Widespread education and awareness programmes to reduce plastic use through better consumer decisions